This definition was first used in Finland to prosecute the political leadership in the War-responsibility trials in Finland. According to the tribunal, each Ally possessed the unqualified right to legislate over the territory that it occupied. The tribunal found that this policy entailed the destruction of Poland as a national entity, the evisceration of all political opposition, and the ruthless exploitation of human resources to promote Hitler's reign of terror. Yet the tribunal determined that circulation of Streicher's racist newspaper had fueled the Nazis' maniacal hatred of Jews and fomented an atmosphere in which genocide was acceptable and desirable. The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials. The revelations of the Holocaust, especially, called for a special response to crimes of this magnitude. . In an effort to maintain this empire, the prosecution demonstrated, Speer had repeatedly cajoled Hitler to procure foreign labor to work in his weapons factories. Jackson was joined on the prosecution team by Roman Rudenko, François de Menthon, and Sir Hartley Shawcross, the chief prosecutors for Russia, France, and Great Britain, respectively. During Germany's attempted conquest and occupation of Europe and Asia, the Nazis slaughtered, tortured, starved, and tormented over six million Jews and countless others—including Catholics, prisoners of war, dissenters, intelligentsia, nobility, and other innocent civilians. Of the 185 people indicted in the subsequent Nuremberg trials, 12 defendants received death sentences, 8 others were given life in prison and an additional 77 people received prison terms of varying lengths, according to the USHMM. One judge from each country actively presided at trial, and the other four sat on the panel as alternates. "use strict";(function(){var insertion=document.getElementById("citation-access-date");var date=new Date().toLocaleDateString(undefined,{month:"long",day:"numeric",year:"numeric"});insertion.parentElement.replaceChild(document.createTextNode(date),insertion)})(); FACT CHECK: We strive for accuracy and fairness. Orders to initiate aggressive (as opposed to defensive) warfare, to violate recognized rules and customs of warfare, or to persecute civilians and prisoners are considered illegal under the Nuremberg principles. Nuremberg Trials: A tribunal established in the German city of Nuremberg by Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union and the United States, to bring to trial those war criminals whose actions during the Second World War were deemed to be international crimes against humanity. The Bavarian city that spawned the rise of the Third Reich by hosting massive Nazi Party propaganda rallies in the 1920s and 1930s was deemed by the victorious Allies to be a fitting place to ...read more, Founded in 1925, the “Schutzstaffel,” German for “Protective Echelon,” initially served as Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler’s (1889-1945) personal bodyguards, and later became one of the most powerful and feared organizations in all of Nazi Germany. Before the Nuremberg trials, these crimes were not well defined, and persons who committed such crimes had never been punished by a multinational tribunal. © 2021 A&E Television Networks, LLC. Walther Funk, Nazi minister of economics, also received a life sentence for financing Germany's aggressive warfare and for exploiting foreign laborers in German industry. The IMT completely exonerated three defendants of war crimes and acquitted most of the remaining defendants of at least some charges. Nurnberg trials, a series of trials held in Nurnberg, Germany, in 1945–46, in which former Nazi leaders were indicted and tried as war criminals by the International Military Tribunal. All Rights Reserved. Wilde, a homosexual, was put on trial for gross indecency in ...read more, The National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or Nazi Party, grew into a mass movement and ruled Germany through totalitarian means from 1933 to 1945 under the leadership of Adolf Hitler (1889-1945). Nuremberg Trials. These proceedings, lasting from December 1946 to April 1949, are grouped together as the Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings. The Nuremberg Trials were composed of twelve different trials that took place from 1945-1949. First, there was no precedent for an international trial of war criminals. The best-known of the Nuremberg trials was the Trial of Major War Criminals, held from November 20, 1945, to October 1, 1946. Principles of justice, fairness, and due process, delegates from the United States argued, required no less. He also conceded that a number of atrocities had been committed under his command during Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union. Frank described his administration's policy by stating that Poland was "treated like a colony" in which the Polish people became "the slaves of the Greater German World Empire." a series of military court cases held between November 1945 and October 1946 at which leading Nazis were tried for war crimes and for carrying out the Holocaust during the Second World War Synonyms and related words Definition and synonyms of the Nuremberg trials from the online English dictionary from Macmillan Education. Crimes against peace included the planning, preparation, initiation, and waging of aggressive war in violation of international treaties, agreements, or assurances. New York: Carrol & Graf. Although the surrender of the Axis powers brought the war to its formal conclusion, the Third Reich had left an indelible imprint on the world. The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals, held by the Allied forces after World War II, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of Nazi Germany. The format of the trial was a mix of legal traditions: There were prosecutors and defense attorneys according to British and American law, but the decisions and sentences were imposed by a tribunal (panel of judges) rather than a single judge and a jury. In 1944 Roosevelt and Churchill briefly entertained the idea of summarily executing the highest-ranking members of the Third Reich without a trial or legal proceeding of any kind. The Nuremberg trials were controversial even among those who wanted the major criminals punished. Non-German Axis leaders were soon removed from the working list of targets for prosecution. First mentioned in 1050, it became a free imperial city in the 1200s and a center of the German cultural renaissance in the 1400s and 1500s. A court set up by the victorious Allies tried twenty-two former officials, including Hermann Goering, in Nuremberg, … Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 5. Hermann Göring (1893-1946), Hitler’s designated successor and head of the “Luftwaffe” (German air force), committed suicide the night before his execution with a cyanide capsule he had hidden in a jar of skin medication. President Roosevelt had implemented a relocation program for more than 100,000 Americans of Japanese descent that confined them to concentration camps around the United States. These … From 1933 to 1938 it was the site of annual Nazi party congresses. As the accused men and judges spoke four different languages, the trial saw the introduction of a technological innovation taken for granted today: instantaneous translation. In 1923 the two joined forces in an unsuccessful attempt to incite a Nazi revolution in a Munich tavern. The subsequent trials were held throughout Germany and involved approximately two hundred additional defendants, including Nazi physicians who performed vile experiments on human subjects, concentration camp commandants who ordered the extermination of their prisoners, and judges who upheld Nazi practices. The Nuremberg trials made three important contributions to international law. The Nuremberg Trials were a series of trials that occurred in post-World War II … Speer had fascinated Hitler long before the war with his architectural prowess, designing buildings that were both immense and imposing. Author, editor, and publisher of Der Stuermer, a privately owned Jew-baiting newspaper, Streicher held no meaningful government position with the Axis powers during World War II. The Trial of the Germans. Judges from the Allied powers—Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States—presided over the hearing of 22 major Nazi criminals. While on the witness stand, Frank confessed to participating in the Nazis' systematic attempt to annihilate the Jewish race. This count aimed to punish the most notorious crimes committed by the Nazi regime, such as Genocide and torture. In contrast, the censorship that affected the Tokyo Trials caused many, including some of the presiding judges, to question the proceedings. Doenitz was sentenced to a ten-year prison term, and Raeder received a life sentence. Hans Frank, the governor-general of Poland during German occupation, was sentenced to hang after being convicted on counts III and IV. The subsequent trials were held in the same location at the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg. Among other advantages, criminal proceedings would require documentation of the crimes charged against the defendants and prevent later accusations that the defendants had been condemned without evidence. A team of Allied attorneys, including American Telford Taylor, subsequently prosecuted individual members of these organizations. Twenty-four individuals were indicted, along with six Nazi organizations determined to be criminal (such as the “Gestapo,” or secret state police). First, they established a precedent that all persons, regardless of their station or occupation in life, can be held individually accountable for their behavior during times of war. of Missouri Press. In the end, the international tribunal found all but three of the defendants guilty. The Nuremberg trials were not typical partisan trials, though. U.S. leaders also feared that the Allies would be perceived as hypocritical for denying the vanquished powers the same basic legal rights that were denied to those persons summarily executed by Germany, Italy, and Japan during the war. IBM provided the technology and recruited men and women from international telephone exchanges to provide on-the-spot translations through headphones in English, French, German and Russian. Baron Konstantin von Neurath, Reich protector of Czechoslovakia, was convicted on all four counts and sentenced to fifteen years in prison for participating in the Nazi militarization campaign. The Nuremberg Trials: What were the Crimes? However, these were trials conducted according to the laws of a single nation rather than, as in the case of the Nuremberg trials, a group of four powers (France, Britain, the Soviet Union and the U.S.) with different legal traditions and practices. The trials were run by the countries that had defeated Germany in the war. The prosecution introduced an article Streicher had published during 1942 in which he described Jewish procreation as a curse of God that could only be lifted through a process of political and ethnic emasculation. That four great nations, flushed with victory and stung with injury, stay the hand of vengeance and voluntarily submit their captive enemies to judgment of the law is one of the most significant tributes that power has ever paid to reason.". Persico, Joseph. The Nuremberg Trials After the war, the top surviving German leaders were tried for Nazi Germany’s crimes, including the crimes of the Holocaust.Their trial was held before an International Military Tribunal (IMT) in Nuremberg, Germany. Kaltenbrunner faced a mountain of evidence demonstrating that he visited a number of concentration camps and had personally witnessed prisoners being gassed and incinerated. Although the legal justifications for the trials and their procedural innovations were controversial at the time, the Nuremberg trials are now regarded as a milestone toward the establishment of a permanent international court, and an important precedent for dealing with later instances of genocide and other crimes against humanity. . Over the next decade, these policies grew increasingly repressive and violent and resulted, by the end of World War II (1939-45), in the systematic, state-sponsored murder of some 6 million European Jews (along with an estimated 4 million to 6 million non-Jews). Aware that this order was a violation of the customs, practices, and laws governing the treatment of prisoners during times of war, Jodl made no attempt to dissuade Hitler from issuing it. Crimes against peace differed from other war crimes, the tribunal said, in that they represented the "accumulated evil" of the Axis powers. Cross-examined about his role in the unlawful confiscation of Jewish property, Rosenberg claimed that all such property was seized to protect it from Allied bombing raids. His flamboyant dress, cutting wit and eccentric lifestyle often put him at odds with the social norms of Victorian England. Nuremberg Principles In 1945, the London Charter of the International Military Tribunal defined three categories of crimes, including crimes against peace. "I have always regarded the Nuremberg Trials as a travesty upon justice and the farce was made even more noisome with Russia participating as one of the judges." It was determined that civilian officials as well as military officers could be accused of war crimes. Nuremberg Trials. Alfred Jodl, chief of the operations staff for the armed forces, also received the death sentence after being convicted on every count. Wilhelm Keitel, field marshall for the High Command of the armed forces, was sentenced to die after being found guilty on every count. Confronted with evidence that he had urged the German regent of Hungary to exterminate the Jews in that country, Ribbentrop responded only by saying that he did not use those words exactly. World War II began in 1939 when Germany invaded Poland. The IMT made all of its decisions by a majority vote of the four judges. Gilbert, G. M. 1995. The resulting trials, held in Nuremberg, Germany, processed twenty-two prominent Nazi leaders, leading to the execution of twelve, the imprisonment of seven, and the acquittal of three. It served as the model for the International Military Tribunal for the Far East which tried Japanese officials for crimes against peace and against humanity. Julius Streicher, an anti-Semitic propagandist, was found guilty of count IV and sentenced to death. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! The court rejected the defense that only countries could perpetrate war crimes and found most of … Baldur von Schirach, governor of occupied Vienna and leader of the Hitler Youth, was convicted on count IV and sentenced to a twenty-year prison term. The Allies eventually established the laws and procedures for the Nuremberg trials with the London Charter of the International Military Tribunal (IMT), issued on August 8, 1945. The prosecution demonstrated that Goering had helped plan and direct the invasions of Poland and Austria. Arye Gut: Khojaly genocide perpetrators rule Armenia, remain at large, STL: 5th International Meetings of Defence held from 8 to 10 November in historic Courtroom 600 of Nuremberg Tribunal, Nulla impossibilia aut inhonesta sunt praesumenda, Nulli enim res sua servit jure servitutis, Nullus commodum capere potest de injuria sua propria, Nullus recedat e curia concellaria sine remedio. The Soviet Union had participated in Germany's invasion and occupation of Poland and had been implicated in the massacre of more than a thousand Poles in the Katyn forest. Following the Trial of Major War Criminals, there were 12 additional trials held at Nuremberg. Goering was also implicated in the extermination of Polish intelligentsia, nobility, and clergy, the execution of British prisoners of war, the deportation of foreign laborers to Germany, the theft of art from French museums, and the suppression of domestic political opposition. Nuremberg was chosen as the location for the trials because of its symbolic value. 10 men in 103 minutes. Lippman, Matthew. During the early stages of World War II, Jodl had been asked to review an order drafted by Hitler authorizing German troops to execute all Soviet military commissars captured during the Nazi invasion of Russia. https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/nuremberg-trials. Among other things, the charter defined three categories of crimes: crimes against peace (including planning, preparing, starting or waging wars of aggression or wars in violation of international agreements), war crimes (including violations of customs or laws of war, including improper treatment of civilians and prisoners of war) and crimes against humanity (including murder, enslavement or deportation of civilians or persecution on political, religious or racial grounds). 1997. In addition, the International Military Tribunal supplied a useful precedent for the trials of Japanese war criminals in Tokyo (1946-48); the 1961 trial of Nazi leader Adolf Eichmann (1906-62); and the establishment of tribunals for war crimes committed in the former Yugoslavia (1993) and in Rwanda (1994). Adolf Hitler, the totalitarian dictator of Germany who was the emotional and intellectual catalyst behind most of the war crimes committed by the Nuremberg defendants, Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS (Schutzstaffel, or Black-shirts, the Nazi organization in charge of the concentration camps and the Gestapo, the German secret police), and Paul Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi minister of propaganda, had all killed themselves during the final days of the war. After the war began, however, Speer's primary obligation was to supply the German armed forces with military supplies, equipment, and weapons. The four great nations flushed with victory and stung with injury, stay the hand of vengeance and voluntarily submit their captive enemies to the judgment of the law. Wilhelm Frick, the German minister of interior, was found guilty on counts I, II, and III and sentenced to be hanged. Taylor, Telford. Hess was convicted of counts I and II and sentenced to life imprisonment. They differed from the first trial in that they were conducted before U.S. military tribunals rather than the international tribunal that decided the fate of the major Nazi leaders. One defendant (Dr. Robert Ley, leader of the Nazi Labor Front) committed suicide before the proceedings began; one defendant (Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, a German military industrialist) was deemed mentally and physically incompetent to stand trial; and one defendant (Martin Bormann, Hitler's secretary and head of the Nazi Party Chancellery) was tried and convicted in absentia because his whereabouts were unknown. Other evidence indicated that Goering had ordered the Luftwaffe to destroy a business district in Rotterdam, Netherlands, even though the city had already surrendered. An additional 140 witnesses provided evidence for the defense through written interrogatories. Frick had signed decrees sanctioning the execution of Jews and other persons held in "protective custody" at the concentration camps and had given Himmler a blank check to take any "security measures" necessary to ensure the German foothold in the occupied territories. Hess originally asserted a defense of amnesia to these charges, claiming that he had forgotten the entire period of his life in which he had acted as deputy führer. Twenty-four Nazi officials were indicted under the Nuremberg Charter for war crimes. Thirty-three witnesses testified for the prosecution. President Harry S. Truman had asked Jackson to assemble a staff of U.S. attorneys to investigate alleged war crimes and present evidence against the defendants. The IMT said that its jurisdiction stemmed from the London Agreement that was promulgated by the Allies pursuant to their inherent legislative powers over the conquered nations, which had unconditionally surrendered. Not all of the Nazi leadership was able to escape justice. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg. It might be outdated or ideologically biased. The Nuremberg Trials. The IMT was given authority to hear four counts of criminal complaints: conspiracy, crimes against peace, War Crimes, and crimes against humanity. Key Nazi leaders like Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and Heinrich Himmler were already dead. "To me the Nuremberg trials have always been totally inexcusable and a horrible travesty of justice. Thus, the Nuremberg trials, while not perfect, changed the face of international law, both procedurally and substantively. Heinrich Himmler (1900-45), a ...read more, The Scopes Trial, also known as the Scopes Monkey Trial, was the 1925 prosecution of science teacher John Scopes for teaching evolution in a Tennessee public school, which a recent bill had made illegal. The court that held the trials was called the International Military Tribunal. 1. Harlan Stone (1872-1946), chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court at the time, described the proceedings as a “sanctimonious fraud” and a “high-grade lynching party.” William O. Douglas (1898-1980), then an associate U.S. Supreme Court justice, said the Allies “substituted power for principle” at Nuremberg. The selection of whom to indict and prosecute at Nuremberg bedeviled the four allied powers during the summer of 1945. The reason for the change was that growing differences among the four Allied powers had made other joint trials impossible. robert h. jackson, an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, led the prosecution team. Documents signed by Hess and meetings he attended reflected his support for Hitler's plan to invade Czechoslovakia, Poland, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Nuremberg+Trials, The museum itself displays the historical process that began with the birth of Hitler and ended with the, Exploring how legal changes led to his belated arrest, his case is used to reflect on failures of the, The PDP chieftain, while contending that the country is under a democracy where the rule of law does not only prevail but must be seen to be the abiding guidance of all our activities, reminded that the, His name first started cropping up with his more notorious partners in war crimes during the first round of the, This novel of ideas opens in spring 1946, with Alekhine living at the Hotel do Parque in Estoril, Portugal, just as the, Arye Gut, who is also a political analyst and blogger in the Jerusalem Post, said that he always writes in the newspaper that the difference between the Khojaly tragedy and the Holocaust is that most of the Holocaust perpetrators were punished after the, Christoph Safferling on the defence at the, Lauterpacht worked tirelessly to ensure that the phrase "crimes against humanity" became enshrined in international law during the, Dictionary, Encyclopedia and Thesaurus - The Free Dictionary, the webmaster's page for free fun content, D-Day map and medals help form auction testimony to hero's courage, Glagoslav's New Historical Novel is About Spies, Counterintelligence Services, War Crimes and Love, Go Out, Vote Peacefully On Saturday And Don't Be Intimidated, Olabode George Tells Nigerians. 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